Key Insights
The Human Enhancement market, encompassing technologies like smartwatches, head-mounted displays, and exoskeletons, is experiencing robust growth, projected at a 19.98% CAGR from 2019-2033. This expansion is fueled by several key drivers. Firstly, increasing consumer demand for fitness tracking and health monitoring devices is significantly boosting the smartwatch and fitness tracker segments. Secondly, advancements in virtual and augmented reality technologies are propelling the adoption of head-mounted displays in entertainment, healthcare (surgical simulations), and training applications. Furthermore, the rising prevalence of chronic diseases is driving demand for medical devices such as exoskeletons for rehabilitation and assistive technologies for individuals with mobility impairments. Technological innovations leading to smaller, lighter, and more comfortable wearable devices, along with decreasing production costs, are further accelerating market penetration. However, challenges remain, including concerns about data privacy and security related to the collection of personal health data, high initial costs associated with certain technologies like exoskeletons, and the potential for ethical dilemmas surrounding human augmentation. Despite these restraints, the long-term outlook for the Human Enhancement market remains positive, driven by continuous technological advancements and growing consumer awareness of the benefits of these products. The market is segmented by product type (smartwatches, HMDs, smart clothing, ear-worn devices, fitness trackers, body-worn cameras, exoskeletons, medical devices) and geographically, with North America and Europe currently holding significant market share due to higher adoption rates and advanced technological infrastructure. However, rapidly developing economies in the Asia-Pacific region are expected to witness significant growth in the coming years.
The competitive landscape is marked by a mix of established tech giants like Google and Samsung, alongside specialized companies like Rewalk Robotics and Second Sight Medical Products. This competition is driving innovation and pushing prices downward, further expanding market accessibility. The future will likely see greater integration of technologies, blurring the lines between different segments and potentially leading to the emergence of more sophisticated and comprehensive human enhancement solutions. This could include personalized wearable technology integrated with AI-powered health monitoring and personalized treatment plans. The market will likely continue to be shaped by evolving regulatory landscapes surrounding data privacy and the ethical implications of human augmentation.
This comprehensive report provides a detailed analysis of the Human Enhancement Industry, encompassing market size, growth drivers, key players, and future trends. The study period covers 2019-2033, with a base year of 2025 and a forecast period of 2025-2033. The report projects a market value exceeding $XX Million by 2033, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of XX%.

Human Enhancement Industry Market Concentration & Innovation
The Human Enhancement Industry is characterized by a moderately concentrated market structure, with a few major players holding significant market share. However, the landscape is dynamic, with ongoing innovation driving the emergence of new entrants and disruptive technologies. Market share is primarily determined by technological advancements, brand reputation, and distribution networks. Several key metrics highlight this dynamic:
- Market Concentration: The top 5 players account for approximately XX% of the global market share in 2025, indicating a moderately concentrated market. This concentration is expected to shift slightly by 2033 due to increased competition and technological disruption.
- Innovation Drivers: Significant R&D investments by key players, coupled with advancements in AI, machine learning, and bio-sensors, are driving continuous product innovation. The convergence of technologies is fueling growth.
- Regulatory Frameworks: The evolving regulatory landscape significantly impacts industry growth. Stringent safety and privacy regulations vary across different geographical locations, creating both opportunities and challenges for companies.
- Product Substitutes: The existence of alternative solutions and increasing affordability of basic wearable technology impacts the premium segment's growth.
- End-User Trends: Growing consumer awareness of health and wellness, coupled with the rising adoption of smart devices, is a major driver of market growth. Increasing demand for personalized health monitoring and improvement tools further fuels market expansion.
- M&A Activities: The industry has witnessed several mergers and acquisitions (M&A) deals valued at over $XX Million in the last five years. These transactions are primarily aimed at expanding product portfolios, enhancing technological capabilities, and securing market access.
Human Enhancement Industry Industry Trends & Insights
The Human Enhancement Industry is experiencing explosive growth, driven by several factors. Technological advancements, particularly in artificial intelligence (AI) and sensor technology, are enabling the creation of more sophisticated and personalized human enhancement products. The market is witnessing a shift towards preventative health solutions, with consumers increasingly seeking products that help them maintain their well-being rather than treat illnesses. The convergence of wearables and health tech is blurring the lines between consumer electronics and medical devices, opening up significant opportunities.
Consumer preferences are trending toward user-friendly interfaces, seamless integration with existing devices, and data privacy assurance. The market is also witnessing increasing competition, with established players facing challenges from innovative startups. This competition is driving down prices and increasing the range of available products. The global Human Enhancement Industry is projected to reach $XX Million by 2033, with a significant market penetration rate expected in developed and emerging economies. The CAGR is estimated to be XX% during the forecast period.

Dominant Markets & Segments in Human Enhancement Industry
The North American region currently holds the largest market share in the Human Enhancement Industry, followed by Europe and Asia-Pacific. This dominance is attributed to higher disposable incomes, technological advancements, and increased awareness of health and wellness. However, the Asia-Pacific region is projected to experience the fastest growth rate during the forecast period due to increasing urbanization, rising adoption of smart devices, and growing healthcare expenditure.
- Key Drivers for Regional Dominance:
- North America: Strong consumer demand, high disposable incomes, advanced healthcare infrastructure, and a favorable regulatory environment.
- Europe: High adoption rates of technological advancements in healthcare, substantial government investment in R&D, and a focus on preventative care.
- Asia-Pacific: Rapid economic growth, increasing urbanization, rising disposable incomes, and a large population base.
The Smartwatch segment dominates the product landscape, accounting for the largest market share in 2025. This is due to its wide adoption, diverse functionalities (fitness tracking, health monitoring, notifications), and relatively low cost. However, other segments, such as Exoskeletons and Medical Devices, are expected to exhibit robust growth rates during the forecast period due to increasing demand for advanced assistive technologies and personalized healthcare solutions.
Human Enhancement Industry Product Developments
Recent product innovations showcase a strong trend towards miniaturization, improved sensor accuracy, and seamless integration with mobile devices. The emphasis is on developing personalized experiences and utilizing AI-powered analytics to provide users with actionable insights. Smartwatches are increasingly integrating advanced health sensors, while exoskeletons are becoming more lightweight and user-friendly. This convergence of technologies is broadening market appeal and driving mass adoption.
Report Scope & Segmentation Analysis
This report segments the Human Enhancement Industry by product type: Smartwatch, Head-mounted Display, Smart Clothing, Ear-worn devices, Fitness Tracker, Body-worn Camera, Exoskeleton, and Medical Devices. Each segment is analyzed in detail, considering market size, growth projections, and competitive dynamics. The Smartwatch segment is projected to maintain its leading position, while other segments like Exoskeletons and Medical Devices are anticipated to experience significant growth driven by technological advancements and increasing demand.
Key Drivers of Human Enhancement Industry Growth
Technological advancements, particularly in areas such as AI, sensor technology, and biomaterials, are a primary driver of industry growth. The increasing affordability and accessibility of wearable technology are also contributing to growth. Government initiatives promoting healthcare innovation and the rising consumer awareness of health and wellness further support market expansion. For example, the increasing integration of AI in wearable devices enables proactive health monitoring and intervention.
Challenges in the Human Enhancement Industry Sector
The industry faces challenges such as stringent regulatory requirements for medical devices, supply chain disruptions, and high R&D costs. Data privacy concerns and the ethical implications of human enhancement technologies also pose significant hurdles. Competition among established players and the emergence of new entrants further intensify market pressures. These factors can impact product development timelines and market penetration rates, potentially hindering overall growth.
Emerging Opportunities in Human Enhancement Industry
Emerging opportunities include the growing demand for personalized medicine, the rise of the metaverse and its implications for human-computer interaction, and the integration of human enhancement technologies in various sectors such as healthcare, sports, and industrial applications. New markets are opening up in developing economies driven by rising disposable incomes and growing awareness of health and wellness. The use of AI-powered predictive analytics will also create significant market potential.
Leading Players in the Human Enhancement Industry Market
- Rewalk Robotics Ltd
- Second Sight Medical Products Inc
- B-Temia Inc
- Google LLC
- Samsung Electronics Co Ltd
- Magic Leap Inc
- Raytheon Company
- Braingate Company
- Vuzix Corporation
- Ekso Bionics Holdings Inc
Key Developments in Human Enhancement Industry Industry
- January 2023: CITIZEN launched the CZ Smart Smarter Smartwatch at CES 2023, featuring a built-in self-care advisor powered by NASA research and IBM Watson AI. This signifies a significant advancement in personalized health monitoring integrated into wearable technology, enhancing its market appeal.
- April 2022: Samsung introduced blood pressure monitoring and ECG features on its Galaxy Watch 4 series in Canada. This expansion of functionalities further strengthens the Smartwatch segment's position and demonstrates the trend towards comprehensive health monitoring within wearable technology.
Strategic Outlook for Human Enhancement Industry Market
The Human Enhancement Industry is poised for substantial growth over the next decade. Technological advancements, rising consumer demand for personalized health solutions, and increasing government investments will fuel market expansion. Opportunities abound in emerging markets and in new applications across various sectors. Companies that can successfully navigate the regulatory landscape, manage supply chain complexities, and address ethical concerns will be best positioned to capitalize on the significant market potential.
Human Enhancement Industry Segmentation
-
1. Product
- 1.1. Smartwatch
- 1.2. Head-mounted Display
- 1.3. Smart Clothing
- 1.4. Ear-worn
- 1.5. Fitness Tracker
- 1.6. Body-worn Camera
- 1.7. Exoskeleton
- 1.8. Medical Devices
Human Enhancement Industry Segmentation By Geography
- 1. North America
- 2. Europe
- 3. Asia Pacific
- 4. Rest of the World

Human Enhancement Industry REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 19.98% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Incremental Technological Advancements in Wearables Aiding the Market Growth
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. High Costs and Data Security Concerns
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Smartwatch to Drive the Market Growth
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Global Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 5.1.1. Smartwatch
- 5.1.2. Head-mounted Display
- 5.1.3. Smart Clothing
- 5.1.4. Ear-worn
- 5.1.5. Fitness Tracker
- 5.1.6. Body-worn Camera
- 5.1.7. Exoskeleton
- 5.1.8. Medical Devices
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.2.1. North America
- 5.2.2. Europe
- 5.2.3. Asia Pacific
- 5.2.4. Rest of the World
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 6. North America Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 6.1.1. Smartwatch
- 6.1.2. Head-mounted Display
- 6.1.3. Smart Clothing
- 6.1.4. Ear-worn
- 6.1.5. Fitness Tracker
- 6.1.6. Body-worn Camera
- 6.1.7. Exoskeleton
- 6.1.8. Medical Devices
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 7. Europe Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 7.1.1. Smartwatch
- 7.1.2. Head-mounted Display
- 7.1.3. Smart Clothing
- 7.1.4. Ear-worn
- 7.1.5. Fitness Tracker
- 7.1.6. Body-worn Camera
- 7.1.7. Exoskeleton
- 7.1.8. Medical Devices
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 8. Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 8.1.1. Smartwatch
- 8.1.2. Head-mounted Display
- 8.1.3. Smart Clothing
- 8.1.4. Ear-worn
- 8.1.5. Fitness Tracker
- 8.1.6. Body-worn Camera
- 8.1.7. Exoskeleton
- 8.1.8. Medical Devices
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 9. Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 9.1.1. Smartwatch
- 9.1.2. Head-mounted Display
- 9.1.3. Smart Clothing
- 9.1.4. Ear-worn
- 9.1.5. Fitness Tracker
- 9.1.6. Body-worn Camera
- 9.1.7. Exoskeleton
- 9.1.8. Medical Devices
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product
- 10. North America Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 10.1.1.
- 11. Europe Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 11.1.1.
- 12. Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 12.1.1.
- 13. Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 13.1.1.
- 14. Competitive Analysis
- 14.1. Global Market Share Analysis 2024
- 14.2. Company Profiles
- 14.2.1 Rewalk Robotics Ltd
- 14.2.1.1. Overview
- 14.2.1.2. Products
- 14.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.2 Second Sight Medical Products Inc
- 14.2.2.1. Overview
- 14.2.2.2. Products
- 14.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.3 B-Temia Inc *List Not Exhaustive
- 14.2.3.1. Overview
- 14.2.3.2. Products
- 14.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.4 Google LLC
- 14.2.4.1. Overview
- 14.2.4.2. Products
- 14.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.5 Samsung Electronics Co Ltd
- 14.2.5.1. Overview
- 14.2.5.2. Products
- 14.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.6 Magic Leap Inc
- 14.2.6.1. Overview
- 14.2.6.2. Products
- 14.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.7 Raytheon Company
- 14.2.7.1. Overview
- 14.2.7.2. Products
- 14.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.8 Braingate Company
- 14.2.8.1. Overview
- 14.2.8.2. Products
- 14.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.9 Vuzix Corporation
- 14.2.9.1. Overview
- 14.2.9.2. Products
- 14.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.10 Ekso Bionics Holdings Inc
- 14.2.10.1. Overview
- 14.2.10.2. Products
- 14.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 14.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 14.2.1 Rewalk Robotics Ltd
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Region 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: North America Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 3: North America Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 4: Europe Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 5: Europe Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 6: Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 7: Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 8: Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 9: Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 10: North America Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 11: North America Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 12: North America Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 13: North America Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 14: Europe Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 15: Europe Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 16: Europe Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 17: Europe Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 18: Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 19: Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 20: Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 21: Asia Pacific Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 22: Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 23: Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 24: Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 25: Rest of the World Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
List of Tables
- Table 1: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Human Enhancement Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Global Human Enhancement Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Human Enhancement Industry?
The projected CAGR is approximately 19.98%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Human Enhancement Industry?
Key companies in the market include Rewalk Robotics Ltd, Second Sight Medical Products Inc, B-Temia Inc *List Not Exhaustive, Google LLC, Samsung Electronics Co Ltd, Magic Leap Inc, Raytheon Company, Braingate Company, Vuzix Corporation, Ekso Bionics Holdings Inc.
3. What are the main segments of the Human Enhancement Industry?
The market segments include Product.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Incremental Technological Advancements in Wearables Aiding the Market Growth.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Smartwatch to Drive the Market Growth.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
High Costs and Data Security Concerns.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
January 2023: CITIZEN, a watchmaking company, announced the launch of the new version of CZ Smart, the Smarter Smartwatch, at CES (Consumer Electronics Show) 2023. It provides a built-in self-care advisor through the proprietary CZ Smart YouQ application, developed using research pioneered by NASA's Ames Research Center and AI built through CITIZEN partnerships utilizing the environment and tools within IBM Watson® Studio on IBM Cloud.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Human Enhancement Industry," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Human Enhancement Industry report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Human Enhancement Industry?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Human Enhancement Industry, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence